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\title{The Implications of Importation of Used Vehicles on the Environment}
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\begin{document}

             \author[1]{Dr. O.S.  Udeozor}

             \affil[1]{  University of Nigeria Nsukka}

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\date{\small \em Received: 6 December 2011 Accepted: 2 January 2012 Published: 15 January 2012}

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\begin{abstract}
        


This study investigates the impact of used vehicles on the environment by sampling a number of such vehicles and carrying out exhaust emission measurements using the Exhaust Gas Analyzer. The exhaust emissions (CO, CxHy, NOx, CO2, SO2) were analyzed to ascertain the level of its concentration.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{Imported Used Vehicles, Pistons and Piston Rings, and Harmful exhaust emissions.}

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{INTRODUCTION}]{INTRODUCTION}\par
housands of used vehicles are imported into Nigeria each year. Some of these are not supposed to be allowed into the country, having passed the age of serviceability. Many of these vehicles pack up finally after a few years of service on Nigeria roads, Thereby, turning the country into a scrap yard. Worst still, in the absence of appropriate recycling facilities, these vehicles degrade our environment \hyperref[b2]{[3]}. They pollute the air with harmful exhaust emissions caused by the wear of piston rings, valve seals, valve guides and cylinder bore  {\ref [4, 5, \&7]}. The pollutants include: CO, COx, NOx, SOx, Benzene, Chlorinated Organic Compounds, Ozonides and Peroxides. CO 2 has greenhouse effects, NO 2 (oxidizes to HNO 3 ) and SO 2 (oxidizes to H 2  {\ref SO 4)} , which eventually fall as acid rain or mist or fog.\par
In Europe, numerous studies have been undertaken by the European Fuel Oxygenates Association (EFOA) to determine the impact of car emissions on human health and the environment. The results were alarming as the findings of EFOA \hyperref[b9]{[10]} showed that;\par
? Long-term exposure to air pollution from cars in adults of over 30 years of age caused an extra 21,000 premature deaths per year resulting from respiratory or heart disease. This was more than the total annual deaths of about 9,900 recorded from road traffic accidents,\par
? Each year, air pollution from cars causes 300,000 extra cases of bronchitis in children, plus 15,000 hospital admissions for heart disease. 395,000 asthma attacks in adults and 162,000 attacks in children.\par
Author ? : Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. E-mail : ogcafe@yahoo.com\par
The 1999 WHO report on health-costs due to road traffic-related air pollution also showed that carrelated pollution kills more people than car accidents in the three European countries where the study took place (Austria, France, and Switzerland).\par
Ajayi carried out analysis of study to shows the increase in used vehicles imported into Nigeria between the periods of 1988 -2005 using time-series analysis. Although there were reduction of these used vehicles in 1994 and 1998, he however pointed out that the high rate of pollution on the environment was majorly caused by this increased importations \hyperref[b0]{[1]}.\par
In this study, a practical approach was adopted to investigate the impact of imported used vehicles on the environment by measuring and analyzing certain exhaust pollutants from used vehicles, the measured pollutants include; Nitrogen Oxides, Sulphur Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide and Unburned Hydrocarbons (NO x , SO 2 , CO, CO 2 , C x H y ). 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{MATERIALS AND METHOD}]{MATERIALS AND METHOD}\par
Measurements on the concentration of harmful exhaust emissions from a number of vehicle engines were taken at some motor parks in both Edo and Delta States of Nigeria. An Exhaust Gas Analyzer with model number "Testo 350 XL" was used to carry out the measurements, by inserting the probe into the vehicle exhaust. The graphical representations and tabular results of measured pollutants from vehicle engines using Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) and Automotive Gas Oil (AGO) are discussed in the next section. 
\section[{III.}]{III.} 
\section[{RESULTS}]{RESULTS} 
\section[{(i)}]{(i)}\par
The graphical representations of measured pollutants from vehicle engines using Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) between the ages of 4-20 months are shown in Figures 3(a       
\section[{DISCUSSION}]{DISCUSSION}\par
The graphs (Figs 3a-Fig 4c) of both Premium Motor Spirit and that of Automotive Gas Oil show a rise in concentration of pollutants released from vehicles older than six months and above, this is known as the 'running-in' period of the engine. At this period the concentration of pollutants are quite low. The second stage, which is known as the 'normal' period in the life of the engine spans from 5-15years. At this stage the pollutant concentration is relatively high; while the sharp rise from 15-25years is the disaster stage of the engine. This last stage needs serious attention, as it is characterized by very high emissions from the exhaust.\par
It is also observed that the graph of (PMS) for NO x emission shows less concentration when compared to the graph of (AGO) with the same pollutant. The reason could be that most of the vehicles using PMS probably have "Three-Way Catalytic Converters" in their exhaust system, which makes the release of NO x minimal because most of the Nitrogen Oxide has been broken down into Nitrogen and Oxygen by this catalytic converter. This is unlike vehicles of AGO that probably uses the "Two Way Catalytic Converters", whose main function in diesel engines is to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions.\par
The results of Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} \& 2 (in PPM) did not compared favourably with Table \hyperref[tab_3]{3}, as the values of Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} \& 2 happens to be higher when compared to the Hourly Mean, Daily Average, and Annual Mean values (in PPM) of the National Air Quality Guidelines for Maximum Exposure (EGASPIN) of Table \hyperref[tab_3]{3}. This is a clear indication that most of these vehicles on the Nigerian roads pose a great risk to the environment.  The potential harmful effects of these automobile exhaust pollutants on human health and the environment are summarized as follows:  
\section[{V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION}]{V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION}\par
This study has shown that the concentration of pollutants of imported used vehicles within the ages of 5 -25years are much higher than the emission standards set by the "National Air Quality Guidelines for Maximum Exposure" (See Table \hyperref[tab_3]{3}), implying that such vehicles are very harmful to the environment and climate (See Table \hyperref[tab_4]{4}).\par
This study suggests that the following measures be put in place; ? Used vehicles entering the country must pass an approved emission test to demonstrate that their emission control equipment is functioning as intended, ? Public and consumer awareness campaigns should be created on the havoc of used vehicles on the environment, ? Vehicle inspection centers should be set up to test and certify compliance, ? Vehicle owners should be made to understand why they should regularly go for checks and maintenance, so that exhaust emissions could be reduced.\par
If these measures are properly observed, greenhouse gases and other harmful substances will be reduced and Nigeria will be making a shift towards a green economy.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}}\end{figure}
      \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 \&}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.15632183908045977\textwidth}P{0.1660919540229885\textwidth}P{0.08304597701149426\textwidth}P{0.24425287356321837\textwidth}P{0.1074712643678161\textwidth}P{0.09281609195402299\textwidth}}
Age of Used\tabcellsep CO 2 in \%\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Parts Per Million (PPM)}\tabcellsep \\
Vehicle\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
(Yrs)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep NO x\tabcellsep C x H y\tabcellsep CO\tabcellsep SO 2\\
5\tabcellsep 9.33\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 890\tabcellsep 1442\tabcellsep 103\\
10\tabcellsep 10.33\tabcellsep 89\tabcellsep 2040\tabcellsep 1446\tabcellsep 189\\
15\tabcellsep 10.10\tabcellsep 120\tabcellsep 3132\tabcellsep 2228\tabcellsep 254\\
20\tabcellsep 11.44\tabcellsep 156\tabcellsep 4159\tabcellsep 2347\tabcellsep 550\\
25\tabcellsep 20.56\tabcellsep 288\tabcellsep 10500\tabcellsep 4228\tabcellsep 980\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.17621951219512194\textwidth}P{0.13993902439024392\textwidth}P{0.10884146341463415\textwidth}P{0.24359756097560972\textwidth}P{0.08810975609756097\textwidth}P{0.09329268292682927\textwidth}}
Age of Used\tabcellsep CO 2 in \%\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Parts Per Million (PPM)}\tabcellsep \\
Vehicle\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
(Yrs)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep NO x\tabcellsep C x H y\tabcellsep CO\tabcellsep SO 2\\
5\tabcellsep 3.57\tabcellsep 615\tabcellsep 550\tabcellsep 251\tabcellsep 36\\
9\tabcellsep 4.0\tabcellsep 765\tabcellsep 870\tabcellsep 344\tabcellsep 102\\
14\tabcellsep 5.8\tabcellsep 967\tabcellsep 920\tabcellsep 386\tabcellsep 178\\
16\tabcellsep 9.8\tabcellsep 1406\tabcellsep 1020\tabcellsep 523\tabcellsep 245\\
25\tabcellsep 10.9\tabcellsep 2067\tabcellsep 1615\tabcellsep 597\tabcellsep 314\\
IV.\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{3} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.3313988095238095\textwidth}P{0.14672619047619048\textwidth}P{0.05059523809523809\textwidth}P{0.18467261904761906\textwidth}P{0.13660714285714287\textwidth}}
Pollutant\tabcellsep 1-Hour Mean\tabcellsep 8-Hour Mean\tabcellsep Daily Average\tabcellsep Annual Mean\\
\tabcellsep (µg/m 3 )\tabcellsep (µg/m 3 )\tabcellsep Mean (µg/m 3 )\tabcellsep (µg/m 3 )\\
Suspended\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Particulate matter\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
(SPM)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Black Smoke\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 40 -60\\
Total (SPM)\tabcellsep 150 -230\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 60 -90\tabcellsep \\
Carbon Monoxide\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep \\
(CO)\tabcellsep 26.09ppm\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 8.70ppm\tabcellsep \\
Sulphur Dioxide\tabcellsep 350\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 100 -150\tabcellsep 40 -60\\
(SO x )\tabcellsep 0.14ppm\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 0.04 -0.06ppm\tabcellsep 0.016 -0.24ppm\\
Nitrogen Dioxide\tabcellsep 400\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep \\
(NO x )\tabcellsep 0.02ppm\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 0.08ppm\tabcellsep \\
Lead\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 0.5 -1.0\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_3}Table 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.08833181403828623\textwidth}P{0.4804010938924339\textwidth}P{0.28126709206927986\textwidth}}
Pollutants\tabcellsep Health Effects\tabcellsep Environmental Effects\\
\tabcellsep Reduces the flow of oxygen in the\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep blood stream and increases the\tabcellsep \\
Carbon Monoxide (CO)\tabcellsep likelihood of exercise-related heart pain in people with coronary heart disease.\tabcellsep Greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.\\
\tabcellsep At low doses it can impair\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep concentration and neurobehavioral\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep function.\tabcellsep \\
Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )\tabcellsep Non\tabcellsep Major greenhouse gas contributing to global\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep warming\\
\tabcellsep May exacerbate asthma and possible\tabcellsep Formation of ground-level ozone\\
Nitrogen Oxides (NO x )\tabcellsep increase susceptibility to infections. It\tabcellsep or "smog," which is highly\\
\tabcellsep could also lead to coughing, shortness\tabcellsep corrosive and damages crops and\\
\tabcellsep of breath and decreased lung function\tabcellsep forests. It contributes to acid rain\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep and is a greenhouse gas that\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep contributes to global warming.\\
\tabcellsep Low molecular weight compounds\tabcellsep \\
Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC)\tabcellsep cause eye irritation, coughing and drowsiness. High molecular weight\tabcellsep Ground level ozone precursor\\
\tabcellsep compounds can be mutagenic or\tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep carcinogenic\tabcellsep \\
Sulfur Oxides\tabcellsep It irritates the eyes and increases the frequency and severity of respiratory\tabcellsep It is a major precursor of acid rain\\
\tabcellsep symptoms and lung disease.\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}Table 4 :}\end{figure}
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