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\title{Social-Economic Effects and Political Satisfaction from Pedestrian Footbridges in Rural Areas}
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             \author[1]{Claude  Munyaneza}

             \author[2]{Leopold  Mbereyaho}

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\date{\small \em Received: 9 December 2020 Accepted: 1 January 2021 Published: 15 January 2021}

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\begin{abstract}
        


It is generally accepted that having a proper river crossing point has a positive effect on rural inhabitants. Such crossing points would increase the ability of communities to access their social services, markets, jobs, and thereby lead to raising their standard of living. In line with this objective, Rwanda has been promoting the construction of pedestrian footbridges in rural areas, and with different partners, different pedestrian footbridges have already been constructed. It is very crucial that all institutions involved in the construction of pedestrian footbridges, both public and private, consider the financial benefits of pedestrian footbridges and some significant direct and indirect effects on the rural communities. The Objective of this study was to identify all possible benefits that may be generated by pedestrian footbridges to understand the potential range of their impacts in rural areas and the likely responses from those people impacted by the project. The study also proposed a comprehensive approach for estimating the economic impacts of a pedestrian footbridge in rural areas. The methodology involved community interviews conducted during site visits to identify and predict possible impacts due to the lack and availability of safe access via pedestrian footbridges.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{political satisfaction, pedestrian footbridge, bridges to prosperity, social-economic effects.}

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\section[{I. Introduction}]{I. Introduction}\par
dequate access to social-economic facilities and services, as hospitals, schools, and shopping centers, etc., for many people living in rural areas, has been one of development goals in developing countries. One of the most affordable and viable alternatives means against rural isolation is the construction of pedestrian footbridges. The protection of people as they go about their everyday lives in their neighborhoods or workplaces may be influenced by improvement in transportation systems \hyperref[b0]{[1]}.\par
A pedestrian-friendly environment can be transformed by unsafe river crossing points or changes in traffic habits that place residents at higher risk of injury or death. Such changes need consideration of adequate and safe crossing points for pedestrians, animals, bicycles, and motorcycles.\par
As a developing country, Rwanda is committed to addressing the problem of inadequate pedestrian footbridges in rural areas, resulting from its geographical conditions. In partnership with districts and other public and private institutions, an International Non-Governmental Organization, Bridges to Prosperity (B2P), which is specialized in the design and construction of pedestrian footbridges, has been constructing pedestrian footbridges for the past nine years. B2P's contribution has resulted in 95 bridges implemented in different districts of Rwanda to serve over 400,000 people. Per an agreement with the Government of Rwanda, over 100 more are to be completed over the next three years \hyperref[b1]{[2]}.\par
Although the immediate impacts of Pedestrian footbridges in rural areas, such as transport costs, travel time, and improved safety, are clear, there are long-term impacts such as increased profitability of farmers and business revenue change, as well as increased employment in the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. It should be also emphasized that the development of rural infrastructure, whether physical or nonphysical, not only improves local economic capacity, but also plays a direct and indirect role in reducing poverty \hyperref[b2]{[3]}.\par
It is necessary that all institutions involved in the construction of pedestrian footbridges, both public and private, are well aware of the value and benefits of the pedestrian footbridges to rural communities which may have significant indirect effects on rural communities, which could result from the direct effects. It is clear that while a pedestrian footbridge can allow the crossing of respective obstacles by communities, it boosts their economy and the national economy in general. As a result, it directly affects the political trust of the communities and the development of the country. Therefore, a comprehensive approach for estimating the social-economic effects of a pedestrian footbridge in rural areas is indispensable to understand the importance of investment in rural pedestrian infrastructure.\par
The aim of social-economic impact assessment is to enable the government and other key stakeholders to recognize and better predict the potential socialeconomic impacts from proposed projects, strategies, and services for human populations and communities \hyperref[b3]{[4]}.\par
Some researchers have conducted studies on how pedestrian footbridges can improve rural economies. \hyperref[b4]{[5]} concluded that the construction of new pedestrian footbridge crossings links rural and underserved communities in developing countries worldwide with the services they need. Some potential indirect effects, such as general economic conditions of an area or region, the availability of municipal services, like sewer and water, the tax incremental, and the quality of life, could occur beyond the project's actual right of way \hyperref[b5]{[6]}.\par
Pedestrian footbridges have a demonstrated impact well beyond the two communities they connect. A study of the total geographic area served by one single pedestrian footbridge in Rwanda resulted in an average of 33 unique villages covering 47 square kilometers of mountainous terrain when considering the reported origins and destinations. An average catchment area of 17 villages was then estimated with the adjustment to reflect only journeys in service of livelihoods, health, and education \hyperref[b6]{[7]}. A study about the methods to identify pedestrian footbridge needs in rural areas of Liberia and Rwanda recommended a mixed approach that combines both sophisticated remote methods with streamlined field-based methods that consider the existing local knowledge and expertise and cataloged the extensive need for safe access throughout rural areas, as well as the destinations that deemed critical by communities, but difficult to reach due to seasonally impassible rivers \hyperref[b7]{[8]}.\par
The possibility of creating a sustainable national Pedestrian footbridge program with the support of a comprehensive Pedestrian footbridge management system was documented in 2020 by Claude Munyaneza. and Leopold Mbereyaho. Analysis of condition data, determination of the ranking and priority of bridge maintenance activities, as well as evaluation of the alternatives of preservation or replacement create an environment where Pedestrian footbridges may be effectively built and maintained \hyperref[b10]{[9]}.\par
In 2020, Brooks and Donovan published their findings of a study about the impact of new bridges in rural Nicaragua, which found that lack of reliable outside market access can have a significant effect on rural economies' long-term agricultural decisions, and infrastructure benefits go beyond the ability to move products more efficiently through space. Pedestrian footbridges improve accessibility to labor markets, which may decrease distortions in the agricultural sector \hyperref[b11]{[10]}. Such access to local businesses increases the safety within the community and generally enhances the quality of life for residents \hyperref[b12]{[11]}. This results in both social capitals as well as economic fairness evaluations which have significant effects on political trust \hyperref[b13]{[12]}.\par
The Objective of this study was to identify all possible benefits resulting from pedestrian footbridge construction to understand the range of potential impacts of a new pedestrian footbridge in rural areas and the likely responses of those impacted by the projects, to highlight rural pedestrian and motorcycle transport as an effective strategy for rural economic development.\par
The study also proposed a comprehensive approach for estimating the economic impacts of a pedestrian footbridge in rural areas. 
\section[{II. Methods}]{II. Methods} 
\section[{a) Methodology Description}]{a) Methodology Description}\par
In addition to the literature review, which provided an opportunity to understand the situation globally and locally and note the gaps, the methodology used in this study involved community interviews and feedback analysis. Interviews and discussions with 980 people, including 30 local leaders, ten bridge builders from B2P, and 940 local communities who are mostly the beneficiaries of constructed pedestrian footbridges in different districts, were held to understand and determine how they are impacted by the pedestrian footbridges. The questionnaire was structured so that information concerning changes of lives before and after the construction of pedestrian footbridge as well as expectations before the project were acquired. Observations made during the site visits helped to identify or predict the impacts of blocked access, and safe crossings. Microsoft Excel analysis tools developed the estimating approach of pedestrian footbridge benefits for rural communities with established formulas. During the site visit, five pedestrian footbridges under the operation stage were selected. The analysis involved the social and economic effects. Social effects were analyzed into four main categories such as accessibility and connectivity, health and safety, an increase of income and reduction of cost, and cultural well-being. The economic effects were analyzed in two main categories: economic impact from user cost and the overall economic benefits.\par
Using statistical analysis software of Rao soft, five pedestrian footbridges were all assessed for their social-economic and political satisfaction effects. Finally, one bridge was taken as a case study for the economic impact assessment. identification and prediction of effects without the pedestrian footbridge and with the pedestrian footbridge in the area. This study focused on identifying socialeconomic impact during the operation stage of a pedestrian footbridge, to gain an understanding before and following pedestrian footbridges construction. 
\section[{c) Community Interest}]{c) Community Interest}\par
The community interest for this study has been informed by several sources. Several interested people were selected because they identified as directly benefiting from the constructed bridges. Additionally, most used the bridges to access their daily socialeconomic activities. For analyzing the effects of the project during the construction stage, the communities who participated in all construction stages were also considered.\par
The community of interest was further informed by a demographic analysis of a wider geographic study area, identifying social and community infrastructure and facilities within the study area, particularly those close to the bridge. The demographic study area was selected to analyze the characteristics of residents and communities within the catchment who were most likely to experience effects as a result of the bridge and assist in the identification of potential community groups that may have been affected by the bridge project, particularly those which are not in direct proximity to the bridge project.\par
Input from the wider community of interest was then sought through further engagement with identified community groups and the general public. This included feedback provided by face-to-face interviews and open day discussions and feedback. 
\section[{d) Social-Economic Impact Assessment Criteria}]{d) Social-Economic Impact Assessment Criteria}\par
Referring to the relevant categories of the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) framework \hyperref[b14]{[13]}, the following framework has been established for assessing the potential impacts that may result from a Pedestrian footbridge project: 
\section[{Way of Life:}]{Way of Life:}\par
? Impacts on accessibility, connectivity, living habits, and mobility\par
? Changes to ways of crossing (walking and cycling) Well, Being:\par
? Changes to wellbeing ? Health and safety Financial:\par
? Change of market price ? Benefit increase from agriculture productivity ? Making Money 
\section[{e) Rating of Effects}]{e) Rating of Effects}\par
In assessing effects, each effect has been given an overall rating of impacts. A four-point scale has been applied, and the ratings applied are:? Significant positive ? Moderate positive ? Minor positive ? Insignificant\par
In applying the overall rating of the effects, consideration was given to: the project stage of the effect (construction, operational, or both), who is affected (directly affected, neighbors, wider community), the probability of occurrence (high, medium, or low), and the magnitude of the impact (high, medium, low), and the significance of the affected feature (local, regional, national) [14]. 
\section[{III. Results}]{III. Results} 
\section[{a) Results from the Interview i. Demographic Profile of Respondents}]{a) Results from the Interview i. Demographic Profile of Respondents}\par
As mentioned in section 2, the total number of participants for this study was 980 people, including 30 local leaders, ten bridge builders from B2P, and 940 local communities. They are mostly the beneficiaries of the constructed pedestrian footbridge in the area. Their demographic profile was considered into three main categories, as summarized in Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} below. These include the age distribution, gender composition, and primary occupation. ii. 
\section[{Social-Economic Effects of Pedestrian Foot bridges In Rural Areas}]{Social-Economic Effects of Pedestrian Foot bridges In Rural Areas}\par
As mentioned in section 2, five pedestrian footbridges built by Bridges to Prosperity were selected for the assessment. Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} summarizes the overall main findings from the interviews, discussions with different surrounding communities, and the observations made during site visits of those five pedestrian footbridges. The table summarizes the effect and overall rating (the magnitude of the effect), the percentage of similarity feedback, and further comments that were considered for assigning each effect with its rating.  
\section[{b) Economic Impact Analysis of Pedestrian Footbridge}]{b) Economic Impact Analysis of Pedestrian Footbridge}\par
Cost categories of the economic impact of the pedestrian footbridge are summarized in Figure \hyperref[fig_1]{1}. As shown by the figure, the economic impact was quantified using user cost for motorcycles and bicycles, user cost for pedestrians, economic benefit, and business revenue change. The scope of analysis presented in this study is limited to the duration of one year. 
\section[{i. Economic Impact from user Cost}]{i. Economic Impact from user Cost}\par
As shown in Figure \hyperref[fig_1]{1}, the economic impact from User Cost is evaluated from Bicycle/Motorcycle user cost and pedestrian user cost. They include motorcyclist/bicyclist, passenger, and pedestrians' costs. The Motorcyclist/Bicyclist cost is comprised of the travel cost (fuel cost, etc.), the delay cost (the Amount of profit that a motorcyclist or bicyclist loses when they are late to get to their destination), and the Operating cost (Tire or tube replacement, general mechanical repair, etc.). The passenger cost comprises of the delay cost (the Amount of profit that a passenger loses when they are late to get to their destination) and the travel cost (transport charges, etc.). The Pedestrian cost comprises of the delay cost (the Amount of profit that a pedestrian loses when they are late to get to their destination). Equations developed by  {\ref [15]} have been considered, modified, and from there, the following equations 1 to 12 were developed.  \par
Where 'WT CAP ' is the walking time by crossing the alternate crossing point (the nearest other safe crossing point); 'WT CB ' is the walking time by crossing the bridge; 'ADTp' is average daily pedestrian traffic; 'IDY P ' is the impassable days per year for pedestrians (when the river is flooded and not impassable), and 'HR P ' the hourly rate for pedestrians. \par
Motorcycle passenger delay Cost:???????? = [(???? ???????????? ? ???? ?????????? ) * ?????? ?????? * ?????? ?????? * ???? ?????? ]\textbf{(8)}\par
Bicycle Passenger Travel Cost: ii. Business Revenue Change The formulas for business revenue changes resulting from the construction of a new Pedestrian footbridge were developed using the theory created by  {\ref [14]}. The business revenue change when the community gets a safe crossing point is a component of economic impact on surrounding businesses. The business revenue increase (BRC) is directly affected by the increase in customer number (IC). It is also a function of average expenditure per household (AE). The number of weeks per year that could be impossible to cross the river without a bridge when it is flooded (IW) means impassable weeks per year.???????? = [(???? ???????????? ? ???? ?????????? ) * ?????? ?????? * ?????? ?????? * ???? ?????? ]\textbf{(9)}?????? = ???? * ???? * ????\textbf{(11)}\par
A significant parameter in the quantification of revenue change of a Pedestrian footbridge is the influence area. In this study, the bridge influence area was estimated based on the study conducted by Bridges to Prosperity, as denoted in section 1 above, which was resulted in an average of 17 villages directly served by a single Pedestrian footbridge.\par
The increase in a number of customers, as shown in Eq. 17, is a function of number of households that would not be able to cross without the bridge when the river is flooded (HCWB) and the percentage area influenced by the bridge (I), and the average frequency per week of patronizing businesses in area (F).???? = ???????? * ?? * ??\textbf{(12)}\par
I and F are estimated using survey data or just by estimating. 
\section[{c) Estimation of Economic Benefit Per Year Per Pedestrian Footbridge for Gashyushya Suspension Bridge Case Study i. Gashyushya Trail Bridge Profile}]{c) Estimation of Economic Benefit Per Year Per Pedestrian Footbridge for Gashyushya Suspension Bridge Case Study i. Gashyushya Trail Bridge Profile}\par
The Gashyushya pedestrian footbridge is a suspension bridge built in 2019 by a non-Government organization, Bridges to Prosperity, in collaboration with the Muhanga district. The communities surrounding the Gashyushya pedestrian footbridge are primarily occupied by Agriculture of different crops mainly, potatoes and bananas. For accessing their market, they must cross the Makurungwe River. Community members also have to cross the river to access their social-economic facilities like schools, medical care, and jobs.\par
During the rainy season, the Makurungwe river frequently becomes violent and stays flooded and fast for three days at a time. So, before the construction of the Gashyushya pedestrian footbridge, it was too dangerous to cross during such period, which resulted in innumerable missed opportunities and has caused multiple injuries in attempted crossings and in at least one reported death per year. The Gashyushya pedestrian footbridge provides safe, year-round access for over 3,000 members of the Murama, Munini, and surrounding communities, providing enhanced access to opportunity to empower the communities out of poverty.  \hyperref[tab_2]{2 and 3} summarize the results of the economic impact from the Gashyushya Suspension Bridge constructed in Muhanga District in terms of user cost. Most of the data were estimated from the participants' feedback during the interview and discussion, in addition to the observations made during the site visit. The average daily traffic for pedestrians (ADT P ), the average daily traffic for motorcycles (ADT M ), and the average daily traffic for bicycles (ADT B ) were estimated from the traffic count survey during seven days. iii. Economic Benefit The approach used by Rotary International for analyzing the economic benefit for their funded projects was used in this study. It is composed of three main types of benefits, which are the economic benefit from farming goods, the additional economic benefit for products and farming goods, and the economic benefit from additional worker jobs. Table \hyperref[tab_3]{4} summarizes the results from the Gashyushya Suspension Bridge analysis. The estimated values were from the discussion with local communities and the observations during site visits. As said earlier in this section, the business revenue changes when a community receives a safe crossing point is a component of economic impact on surrounding businesses. The business revenue increase (BRC) is directly affected by the increase in customer number (IC). It is also a function of average expenditure per household (AE). The number of weeks per year that could be impossible to cross the river without a bridge when it is flooded (IW) means impassable weeks per year. Table \hyperref[tab_4]{5} below summarize the results from the interviews and observations during the site visit of the Gashyushya suspension bridge. The total economic benefit from a constructed pedestrian footbridge is the summation of benefit from bridge user cost, farming goods, increase of employment, and the business revenue change. In Rural Areas Out of the total population interviewed, 96\% showed that having a pedestrian footbridge in their rural areas gave them great pleasure and much confidence and appreciation of their leaders. Pedestrian footbridge increased the benefit from gross domestic products, which changed the economic situation in rural areas. Pedestrian footbridges increased the economic prosperity of a rural communities. Pedestrian footbridge in the traditional footpaths helps rural communities not only to access the social-economic facilities but also motivate and increase community hope and efforts, which affect the trustworthiness of the government to prioritize the population. 
\section[{f) Discussion}]{f) Discussion} 
\section[{i. Results Validation}]{i. Results Validation}\par
The results from interviews and discussion are presented in Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1}. About 90\% of participants were pedestrian footbridge beneficiaries in one way or another. These included the bridge users who cross it regularly to access their social-economic facilities, as well as others whose lives improved as a result of the overall economic benefit and business revenue change due to the pedestrian footbridges in their areas. There are some others who made and who are making money from the construction and use of pedestrian footbridge in their rural areas, where we can say for example the motorcyclists and cyclists.\par
The formulas to estimate the economic benefit year per pedestrian footbridge were developed from international theories for estimating the economic benefit for infrastructure projects. It was based on the existing factors that influence the economic growth in rural areas. The price of each factor was estimated from the information given by the local communities surrounding the pedestrian footbridge in the study.\par
ii. Discussion of the Results Social-Economic Effects of Pedestrian footbridge in Rural Areas: 1) More than 97\% of respondents confirmed that pedestrian footbridges in their rural areas were effectively changing their livelihoods both socially and financially \hyperref[b4]{[5]}. This is understandable because pedestrian footbridge improves their accessibility to social-economic facilities like schools, markets, health centers, etc. During the rainy season, the river was impassable, and many activities were stopped until the water lowered. 2) What was also found is that pedestrian footbridge is not only beneficial to the surrounding communities but also to the wider communities \hyperref[b6]{[7]}. During the site visit on market day, some communities attending the market indicated that people traveled from 10 -15 kilometers away (two to three hours walking). This is mainly caused by the small number of social-economic facilities presented in some rural areas. 
\section[{3) Gashyushya Suspension Bridge built by Bridges to}]{3) Gashyushya Suspension Bridge built by Bridges to}\par
Prosperity was taken as a case study to analyze the economic benefit per year. The total benefit resulting from bridge user cost represented about 39.22\% of the total benefit of the bridge per annual. The Benefit from the farming goods and products in addition to the benefit from additional work jobs takes about 45.53 \%, while the benefit from the business revenue changes represents about 15.25 \%. 4) It has been found that in some areas, communities do not benefit from the constructed pedestrian footbridge due to the small number of bridges presented in the area, because there are need for pedestrian footbridges, but they are not known.\par
There should be a better way to identify all needed pedestrian footbridges in rural areas \hyperref[b7]{[8]}. Otherwise, some communities are having difficulties to cross a water point before they access the constructed Pedestrian footbridge. 
\section[{Political Satisfaction Effects of Pedestrian footbridge in}]{Political Satisfaction Effects of Pedestrian footbridge in}\par
Rural Areas: 1) Pedestrian footbridge increased the government trustworthiness of the communities around the constructed pedestrian footbridge in rural areas. This is very understandable because one of the indicators of the political satisfaction of the population are the social and cultural coherence and economic growth, which are directly affected by infrastructure development 2) Pedestrian footbridges helped the communities not only to access their social-economic facilities but also to fulfill their needs and desire and increased the benefit from gross domestic products, which increased the economic prosperity in their rural areas. 
\section[{IV. Conclusion}]{IV. Conclusion}\par
The main objective of this study was to identify potential benefits and propose the comprehensive approach of estimating the economic benefits of a pedestrian footbridge in rural areas to better understand the potential impacts of the constructed pedestrian footbridges in rural areas and the likely responses of those impacted by the projects. With the detailed literature review, interviews, and discussion with different foot bridging stakeholders, the following results were achieved:\par
1. As per the majority of participants in this study, a pedestrian footbridge in rural areas have a significant social-economic effect which are directly affect the political satisfaction of local communities in rural areas. 2. Different formulas were developed, and one bridge was selected as a case study to analyze its economic benefit to the surrounding community. The total benefit resulted from the user cost, farming goods, and products, and benefit from the business revenue was estimated as One hundred and fortysix million and nine hundred and sixty-nine thousand Rwandan Francs (146,969,000 Rwf) per year. This number is a good example and proof of investment needs in the pedestrian footbridges, which affect not only the rural community but also the country's economy in general. 3. The present detailed bridge social-economic effects, which are conducted by Bridges to Prosperity before and after the bridge is built, could help to understand how communities are being impacted by pedestrian footbridges in rural areas. 4. All Pedestrian footbridge effects outlined in this study were adequate and comprehensive enough to support relevant authorities to prioritize the pedestrian footbridges wherever they are needed in the country.\par
Based on the above results, it is recommended that pedestrian footbridges could be prioritized not only to provide access to the rural communities but also to facilitate their economic growth to break the cycle of poverty. A further study would be welcome for a comparative investigation between the total cost of a new pedestrian footbridge with the total economic benefit of a pedestrian footbridge during its entire life span, to understand well how the investment in pedestrian footbridge can contribute to the entire economic growth of a country.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}©}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1}\includegraphics[]{image-3.png}
\caption{\label{fig_1}Figure 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-4.png}
\caption{\label{fig_2}}\end{figure}
   \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.31556886227544906\textwidth}P{0.04835329341317365\textwidth}P{0.081437125748503\textwidth}P{0.1374251497005988\textwidth}P{0.03053892215568862\textwidth}P{0.03053892215568862\textwidth}P{0.10434131736526946\textwidth}P{0.06362275449101795\textwidth}P{0.03817365269461078\textwidth}}
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Age Distribution}\tabcellsep Percentage\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Gender Composition}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Primary Occupation}\tabcellsep \\
Age group\tabcellsep Number\tabcellsep \%\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Male Female Agriculture}\tabcellsep Business people\tabcellsep Salaried Employee\tabcellsep Students\\
4\textunderscore 12\tabcellsep 54\tabcellsep 5.51\tabcellsep 32\tabcellsep 22\tabcellsep 0\tabcellsep 0\tabcellsep 0\tabcellsep 54\\
13\textunderscore 21\tabcellsep 47\tabcellsep 4.80\tabcellsep 16\tabcellsep 31\tabcellsep 12\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 32\\
22\textunderscore 30\tabcellsep 179\tabcellsep 18.27\tabcellsep 105\tabcellsep 74\tabcellsep 129\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep 18\tabcellsep 2\\
31\textunderscore 39\tabcellsep 245\tabcellsep 25\tabcellsep 108\tabcellsep 137\tabcellsep 187\tabcellsep 36\tabcellsep 22\tabcellsep 0\\
40\textunderscore 48\tabcellsep 233\tabcellsep 23.78\tabcellsep 104\tabcellsep 129\tabcellsep 204\tabcellsep 16\tabcellsep 13\tabcellsep 0\end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: © 2021 Global Journals lobal Journal of Researches in Engineering ( ) Volume Xx XI Is sue III Version I J Year 2021 Social-Economic Effects and Political Satisfaction from Pedestrian Footbridges in Rural Areas]} 
\caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.021632526381129735\textwidth}P{0.1627715704531347\textwidth}P{0.105788330229671\textwidth}P{0.0313935443823712\textwidth}P{0.5284140285536933\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Effect\tabcellsep Positive Overall rating\tabcellsep \% Similarity Feedback from Respondents\tabcellsep Situation before the construction of Pedestrian footbridge in the area.\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Way of Life (Accessibility and Connectivity)}\\
\tabcellsep Access to schools\tabcellsep Significant\tabcellsep 97\%\tabcellsep During the rainy season, students were not able\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Positive\tabcellsep \tabcellsep to attend the schools. some were not able to go\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep back home and stay at school.\\
lobal Journal of Researches in Engineering ( ) Volume Xx XI Is sue III Version I J\tabcellsep Access to Markets Access to Health/ Hospital center Access to Church Access to Drinking water Access to Public Offices Access to Public Transport Saving Walking/Travel Time Well-being (Health and Safety) Saving lives Decrease of injuries General improvements to pedestrian and cyclist safety Reducing infant and maternal mortality Ability to pay the health insurance (Mutuel de Sante) Financial (Income and Cost)\tabcellsep Significant Positive Significant Positive Significant Positive Moderate Positive Moderate Positive Significant Positive Significant Positive Significant Positive Significant Positive Moderate Positive Moderate Positive Significant Positive\tabcellsep 98\% 96\% 94\% 95\% 93\% 97\% 100\% 98\% 98\% 96\% 94\% 92\%\tabcellsep During the rainy season, Communities could not attend the local markets and even sometimes they could not back home, until the water in the river get low. During the rainy season, Communities could not go to health centers and hospital due to high water level over the existing log timber bridge. The attendance to churches was low during the rainy season. Communities couldn't cross when the river is flooded. Some communities from one side use the bridge to fetch drinking water from the other side of the river. Some communities use the bridge to go the sector and cell offices. It was difficult to access the bus station during rainy season, and the bridge made consistent access possible. the residences and the social-economic facilities. The average distance is about 9km from nearest village to the nearest facility. Before the bridge was constructed, many people died while crossing the river. Before the bridge was constructed, many people were injured while crossing the river. People of all ages were able to cross safely during bridge construction Since the health center is far from the alternative safe crossing point, before the bridges, some mothers were insisting on giving birth at home by preventing to cross the river. The bridges increased the economic revenue, which gave the communities the ability to pay their "mutuel de sante" The alternative safe crossing points are far from\\
\tabcellsep Economic benefit from farming\tabcellsep Significant\tabcellsep 99\%\tabcellsep Pedestrian footbridges allowed farmers to bring\\
\tabcellsep goods\tabcellsep Positive\tabcellsep \tabcellsep their products on their expected local markets,\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep which increased the price.\\
\tabcellsep Additional economic benefits from\tabcellsep Significant\tabcellsep 97\%\tabcellsep Pedestrian footbridges allowed the farmers to\\
\tabcellsep products and farming goods\tabcellsep Positive\tabcellsep \tabcellsep bring all their products to market.\\
\tabcellsep Economic benefits from additional\tabcellsep Significant\tabcellsep 98\%\tabcellsep Pedestrian footbridges allowed the workers to\\
\tabcellsep worker jobs\tabcellsep Positive\tabcellsep \tabcellsep access their daily activities and earn additional\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep income.\\
\tabcellsep Business revenue change\tabcellsep Significant\tabcellsep 95\%\tabcellsep Pedestrian footbridges increased the traffic flow,\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Positive\tabcellsep \tabcellsep therefore the customer flowed to surrounding\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep businesses.\\
\tabcellsep © 2021 Global Journals\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: 93\%the increase of student attendance, and short walking distance affected the overall student results.]} 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{3} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.04971532091097308\textwidth}P{0.08227225672877847\textwidth}P{0.7180124223602484\textwidth}}
Year 2021\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
lobal Journal of Researches in Engineering ( ) Volume Xx XI Is sue III Version I J\tabcellsep Abbreviation ADT M ADT B ADT BPS ADT MPS BOC HR B HR M HR MPS IDY M IDY B IDY MPS IDY BPS MOC TT CAPM TT CBM TR M TT CAPB TT CBB TR B TT CAPMPS HR BPS\tabcellsep Bicycle Passenger delay Cost: ???????? = [(???? ???????????? ? ???? ?????????? )  *  ?????? ??????  *  ?????? ??????  *  ???? ?????? ] (10) where, Definition Average daily motorcycle traffic Average daily bicycle traffic Average daily bicycle passenger traffic Average daily motorcycle passenger traffic; Bicycle operating cost Hourly rate for bicycles, Hourly rate for motorcycles Hourly rate for motorcycle passenger Impassable days per year for motorcycle (when the river is flooded and not passable) Impassable days per year for bicycles (when the river is flooded and not impassable) Impassable days per year for motorcycle passenger (when the river is flooded and not impassable) Impassable days per year for bicycle passengers (when the river is flooded and not impassable) Motorcycle operating cost, Motorcycle's traveling time by crossing the alternate crossing point (the nearest other safe crossing point) Motorcycle's traveling time by crossing the bridge Travel rate for motorcycles Bicycle's travel time, incurred by crossing the alternate crossing point (the nearest other safe crossing point) Bicycle's travel time by crossing the bridge; Travel rate for bicycles Motorcycle passenger's traveling time by crossing the Hourly rate for bicycle passenger.\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep alternate crossing point (the nearest other safe crossing\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep point);\\
\tabcellsep TT CBMPS\tabcellsep Motorcycle passenger's traveling time by crossing the bridge\\
\tabcellsep TR MPS\tabcellsep Travel rate for motorcycle passenger\\
\tabcellsep TT CAPBPS\tabcellsep Bicycle passenger's traveling time by crossing the alternate\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep crossing point (the nearest other safe crossing point\\
\tabcellsep TT CBBPS\tabcellsep Bicycle passenger's traveling time by crossing the bridge\\
\tabcellsep TR BPS\tabcellsep Travel rate for bicycle passenger;\\
© 2021 Global Journals\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}Table 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.1818181818181818\textwidth}P{0.3045454545454545\textwidth}P{0.20227272727272727\textwidth}P{0.16136363636363638\textwidth}}
Parameter\tabcellsep Value\tabcellsep Parameter\tabcellsep Value\\
ADT B\tabcellsep 82 bicycle/day\tabcellsep IDY P\tabcellsep 112 days\\
ADT BPS\tabcellsep 16 passengers/day\tabcellsep TR M\tabcellsep 900 Rwf\\
ADT M\tabcellsep 53 Moto/day\tabcellsep TR MPS\tabcellsep 2,000 Rwf\\
ADT MPS\tabcellsep 32 passengers/day\tabcellsep TT CAPB\tabcellsep 0.75h\\
ADT P\tabcellsep 664 people/day\tabcellsep TT CAPBPS\tabcellsep 0.8h\\
HOC B\tabcellsep 200 Rwf\tabcellsep TT CAPM\tabcellsep 0.25h\\
HOC M\tabcellsep 400 Rwf\tabcellsep TT CAPMPS\tabcellsep 0.25h\\
HR BPS\tabcellsep 350 Rwf\tabcellsep TT CBBPS\tabcellsep 0.3h\\
HR M\tabcellsep 500 Rwf\tabcellsep TT CBM\tabcellsep 0.05h\\
HR P\tabcellsep 660 Rwf\tabcellsep TT CBMPS\tabcellsep 0.05h\\
HR MPS\tabcellsep 350Rwf\tabcellsep WT CAP\tabcellsep 2.0 h\\
IDY M\tabcellsep 112 days\tabcellsep WT CB\tabcellsep 0.3h\\
IDY MPS\tabcellsep 112days\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_3}Table 4 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{5} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.46660268714011516\textwidth}P{0.10115163147792706\textwidth}P{0.16314779270633398\textwidth}P{0.1190978886756238\textwidth}}
Parameter's Name\tabcellsep Parameter's Abbreviation\tabcellsep Value (RWF)\tabcellsep Equation used\\
Bicyclist delay cost\tabcellsep BDC\tabcellsep 1,974,560\tabcellsep Equ. 4\\
Bicycle operating cost\tabcellsep BOC\tabcellsep 918,400\tabcellsep Equ. 6\\
Bicycle passenger delay cost\tabcellsep BPDC\tabcellsep 313,600\tabcellsep Equ.10\\
Bicycle passenger travel cost\tabcellsep BPTC\tabcellsep 358,400\tabcellsep Equ. 9\\
Motorcyclist delay cost\tabcellsep MDC\tabcellsep 593,600\tabcellsep Equ. 3\\
Motorcycle operating cost\tabcellsep MOC\tabcellsep 474,880\tabcellsep Equ. 5\\
Motorcycle passenger delay cost\tabcellsep MPDC\tabcellsep 250,880\tabcellsep Equ. 8\\
Motorcycle passenger travel cost\tabcellsep MPTC\tabcellsep 1,433,600\tabcellsep Equ. 7\\
Motorcyclist travel cost\tabcellsep MTC\tabcellsep 1,068,480\tabcellsep Equ. 2\\
Pedestrian delay cost\tabcellsep PDC\tabcellsep 57,652,000\tabcellsep Equ. 1\\
Total user cost\tabcellsep TISC\tabcellsep 57,652,000\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}Table 5 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{6} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.7460698689956332\textwidth}P{0.019796215429403203\textwidth}P{0.0507278020378457\textwidth}P{0.03340611353711791\textwidth}}
Parameter' name\tabcellsep Parameter's Symbole\tabcellsep Value\tabcellsep Equation\\
Estimated number of bridge users crossing per day (A): people/day\tabcellsep A\tabcellsep 664\tabcellsep N.E\\
Estimated number of kilos of farming goods crossing per day(B): kilos/day\tabcellsep B\tabcellsep 9,960\tabcellsep N.E\\
Estimated differential sales price between selling product on one side versus newly\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
accessed side(C): Rwf/kilo\tabcellsep C\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep N.E\\
Estimated additional kilos of products/farming goods not otherwise sold without\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
access to other side per annum(D): kilos/annum.\tabcellsep D\tabcellsep 25,550\tabcellsep N.E\\
Average price of products sold per kilo(E) Rwf/kilo\tabcellsep E\tabcellsep 250\tabcellsep N.E\\
Estimated number of worker crossings per day that would otherwise not be able to\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
access job on newly accessed side(F): Number\tabcellsep F\tabcellsep 26\tabcellsep N.E\\
Estimated wages earned by workers per day that would otherwise not be able to gain\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
access to jobs without bridge(G) RWf /day\tabcellsep G\tabcellsep 1,500\tabcellsep N.E\\
Number of days that footbridge is used per year by farmers and workers(H): days\tabcellsep H\tabcellsep 325\tabcellsep N.E\\
Economic benefit from farming goods(I). Rwf /day (Multiply B by C)\tabcellsep I\tabcellsep 149,400\tabcellsep (B*C)\\
Additional economic benefit for products and farming goods(J). Rwf /day (Multiply D\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
by E then divide by 365)\tabcellsep J\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{17,500 [(D*E)/365]}\\
Economic benefit from additional worker jobs(K): Rwf /day (Multiply F by G)\tabcellsep K\tabcellsep 39,000\tabcellsep (F*G)\\
Total economic benefit for farming goods and workers(L): Rwf /day (Add I + J + K)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep L\tabcellsep 205,900\tabcellsep (I+J+K)\\
Estimated economic benefit per year for this footbridge: Rwf /annum (Multiply L by H)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep M\tabcellsep 66,917,500\tabcellsep (L*H)\\
iv. Business Revenue Change\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}Table 6 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{7} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.6998233215547702\textwidth}P{0.05856890459363958\textwidth}P{0.049558303886925795\textwidth}P{0.042049469964664306\textwidth}}
Parameter's name\tabcellsep Parameter's Abbreviation\tabcellsep Value\tabcellsep Equation\\
number of households that would not be able to cross without the\tabcellsep HCWB\tabcellsep 2000\tabcellsep \\
bridge when the river is flooded (Households)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
percentage area influenced by the bridge (percentage)\tabcellsep I\tabcellsep 50\%\tabcellsep \\
average frequency per week of patronizing businesses in the area\tabcellsep F\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep \\
(visit per week)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
average expenditure per household (Rwf/visit/househpold)\tabcellsep AE\tabcellsep 700\tabcellsep \\
Impassable weeks per year (Weeks/year)\tabcellsep IW\tabcellsep 16\tabcellsep \\
number of customers\tabcellsep IC\tabcellsep 2000\tabcellsep (WCWB*I*F)\\
The business revenue increase (Rwf)\tabcellsep BRC\tabcellsep 22,400,000\tabcellsep (IC*AE*IW)\\
d) Total Economic Benefit Per Year Per Pedestrian\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Footbridge.\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_6}Table 7 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{6} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
( ) Volume Xx XI Is sue III Version I J\\
lobal Journal of Researches in Engineering\\
© 2021 Global Journals\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_7}Table 6}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{8} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.582367758186398\textwidth}P{0.05780856423173804\textwidth}P{0.08778337531486145\textwidth}P{0.12204030226700252\textwidth}}
Benefit Description\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Symbol Amount (Rwf)}\tabcellsep Percentage of the Total Benefit\\
Total user cost per year\tabcellsep UC\tabcellsep 57,652,000\tabcellsep 39.22\%\\
Economic benefit from farming goods and\tabcellsep EB\tabcellsep 66,917,000\tabcellsep 45.53\%\\
increase of employment per year\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Business revenue increase per year.\tabcellsep BR\tabcellsep 22,400,000\tabcellsep 15.25\%\\
Total economic benefit per year for Gashyushya\tabcellsep FB\tabcellsep 146,969,000\tabcellsep 100\%\\
Suspension Footbridge\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{e) Political Satisfaction Effect of Pedestrian Footbridge}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_8}Table 8 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{Year 2021 Social-Economic Effects and Political Satisfaction from Pedestrian Footbridges in Rural Areas} 			\footnote{Social-Economic Effects and Political Satisfaction from Pedestrian Footbridges in Rural Areas} 		 		\backmatter   			 
\subsection[{Acknowledgements}]{Acknowledgements}\par
The Authors would like to thank Abbie Noriega for her editing and useful comments. 			  			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
\bibitem[Shirley]{b7}\label{b7} 	 		\textit{},  		 			Kyle Shirley 		.  		 	 
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\end{document}
