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\title{Effect of Temperature Variation and Type of Embankment Soil on Integral Abutment Bridges in Sudan}
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             \author[1]{Eltayeb Hassan  Onsa}

             \author[2]{Anwar Adam  Ahamed}

             \author[3]{Ahmed Gasim  Mahmoud}

             \affil[1]{  Omuramn Islamic University}

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\date{\small \em Received: 15 June 2015 Accepted: 1 July 2015 Published: 15 July 2015}

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\begin{abstract}
        


The integral-abutment bridge (IAB) concept was developed at least as far back as the 1930s to solve long-term structural problems that can occur with conventional bridge designs. Due to limited funding sources for bridge maintenance, it is desirable to establish strategies for eliminating joints as much as possible and converting/retrofitting bridges with troublesome joints to jointless design.IABs or jointless bridges have many advantages over full height abutment. They eliminate expansion joints in bridge superstructures and simplify design, detailing, and construction. Despite the recognized benefits, the behavior of such structures is not yet fully understood, and nationally adopted design criteria are still lacking.

\end{abstract}


\keywords{integral abutment bridges, jointless bridges, semi-integral bridge, temperature variation, embankment soil, bridge total length.}

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\let\tabcellsep& 	 	 		 
\section[{Introduction}]{Introduction}\par
ntegral Abutment Bridges (IABs) possess a number of unique design details that make them desirable in many applications. These bridges are constructed without expansion joints, within the superstructure of the bridge, nor elastomeric bearings at the supports, i.e. the superstructure is constructed integrally with the abutments and piers \hyperref[b11]{[13,}\hyperref[b12]{16]}.\par
IABs eliminate the use of moveable joints and the expensive maintenance or replacement costs that go with them. The overall design of IABs is simpler than that of their non-integral counterparts; the simplicity of these bridges allows for rapid construction. IABs have proven themselves in earthquakes and performance studies. The advantages of IABs make them the preferred choice for many design and construction engineers in Sudan and worldwide.\par
Despite the significant advantages of integral bridges, there are some problems and uncertainties associated with them. These include the following, \hyperref[b8]{[10]}:\par
? Temperature-induced movements of the abutment cause settlement of the approach fill, resulting in a void near the abutment if the bridge has approach slabs. ? Secondary forces (due to shrinkage, creep, settlement, temperature and earth pressure) can cause cracks in concrete bridge abutments.This problem can be eliminated by using approach slabs.\par
a) Soil -structure interaction at IAB embankments Although the IAB concept has proven to be economical in initial construction for a wide range of span lengths as well as technically successful in eliminating expansion joint/bearing problems, but is not problem-free overall in service. Because of the increased use of IABs, there is now greater awareness of and interest in their post-construction, in-service problems. Because of the continuity between superstructure and substructure of IABs, there is a significant interaction with surrounding soil and backfill behind abutments, especially during thermal expansion as the structure is pushed into the soil of the backfill, see Figure  {\ref 1}. The soil is usually represented as an elastic-plastic material whose properties affect internal forces in the integral bridge, \hyperref[b6]{[8,}\hyperref[b8]{10,}\hyperref[b10]{12]}. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the influence of embankment soil in the integral bridge design. This is,apparently, seems one of the main problems in the analysis of IABs in practice.\par
Fundamentally, these problems are due to a complex soil-structure interaction mechanism involving relative movement between the bridge abutments and adjacent retained soil. Although such problems turnout to be primarily geotechnical in their cause, they can result in significant damage to structural components of the bridge. Overall, these post-construction problems, As the bridge superstructure goes through its seasonal length changes, it causes the structurally connected abutments to move away from the soil they retain in the winter and into the soil during the summer.\par
The mode of abutment movement is primarily rotation about their bottom although there is a component of translation (horizontal displacement) as well. The total horizontal displacements are greatest at the top of each abutment Effect of Temperature Variation and Type of Embankment Soil on Integral Abutment Bridges in Sudan and can have a maximum magnitude of the order of several centimeters \hyperref[b6]{[8,}\hyperref[b10]{12,}\hyperref[b11]{13]}. 
\section[{II.}]{II.} 
\section[{Case Study: four iabs in Sudan}]{Case Study: four iabs in Sudan}\par
Four IABs at Karakon -Hameshkoreib road in Kassala State at east of Sudan are presented in this paper as case study. Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} shows the bridges main data and Figures2 to 4 illustrate the general views regarding Bridge \#2; the other three bridges differ from Bridge \#2 in the number of spans and totallengths.\par
Studying the effects of longitudinal bridge movement on the forces at the four subject bridges was a major focus of the paper. A bridge will expand and contract from seasonal and diurnal variations in temperature and will contract with concrete creep and shrinkage strains. Piers and abutments must be designed to accommodate this movement, and the superstructure must be capable of carrying the forces induced by the stiffness of the piers and abutments.  The following sections present the material, geometric and design data adopted for the analysis and design of the four bridges; see also Tables \hyperref[tab_1]{2 and 3} and Figures \hyperref[fig_2]{2 to 6}.  The effective temperature is the temperature that governs the overall longitudinal movement of the bridge superstructure. Determination of the effective temperature is a complex problem influenced by shade temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, material properties, surface characteristics and section property \hyperref[b9]{[11]}.\par
The following equations are sometimes used to calculate the effective temperature change, \hyperref[b2]{[4]} Where, However, temperature calculated using Equation 1 does not seem to be suitable for the case of IABs in Sudan since it gives too low temperature changes. Hence, in the absence of approved temperature contours in Sudan, the Authors used maximum and minimum temperatures corresponding to (100km to South from Bridge \#2).Calculation of temperature effects are performed using the procedure shown in reference \hyperref[b1]{[3]}.\par
The effective temperature change also depends on the air temperature at concrete setting: assumed the nearest metrological station at Kassala Town here = 25 °C. However, to illustrate the extended effect of temperature change on the forces exerted on the IABs the temperature change is varied between 10°C and 50°C.  Analysis steps: Longitudinal capacity: Calculate the active earth pressure coefficient, needed to resist braking and traction forces, applying capacity is available from the earth behind the abutment to resist the longitudinal forces, and check the magnitude of the horizontal movement required to mobilize the required earth pressure.\par
? Check horizontal movement.\par
? Check capacity of soil to resist horizontal forces. Analysis of deck, piers, and abutments:\par
The whole bridge structure is modeled and all bridge load combinations are applied. Linear elastic foundation model based on actual soil parameters is applied at piles and abutment wall.\par
The abutment piles are designed such that their diameters are much smaller than abutment wall thickness to insure negligible restraint to rotation (pinned ends) at abutment/pile interface \hyperref[b3]{[5,}\hyperref[b14]{15]}. Hogging due to creep is therefore also unrestrained, but can be ignored. Maximum thermal expansion and Load Combination 3 are applied [1, 2,3] wheremaximum earth pressure on abutment walls is based on lateral earth pressure Maximum thermal contraction, together with minimum bridge loads and active earth pressures are applied as loads. The effects of long term creep and positive differential temperature loading are included. Load Combination 3 is applied to deck expansion, considering passive earth pressure and rotation at pile heads, i.e.Piles are designed for bending. Thermal movement, creep rotation and rotation due to differential temperature loads are applied to pile heads, resulting in reverse bending in piles. 
\section[{Results of analysis}]{Results of analysis}\par
The interaction of abutment wall and piles with soil layers are modeled using finite elements concepts. The results of longitudinal defection, bending moment and shear force at abutment/deck joint for the four bridges are presented in Figures  {\ref 7, 8 and 9}, respectively.\par
It is worthwhile mentioning that for the 4 bridges the negative moment and shear force at abutment governed the design. Design sagging moments within spans and negative moments at piers are governed by Load Combination 3 (permanent loads, primary live loads, and temperature loads) In this paper three types of soil are tried at embankments behind the abutments, Table \hyperref[tab_1]{2} shows the physical properties of the three embankment soils. Effect of temperature and bridge total length:\par
Although it was advised to adopt IABs up to 60 meters, \hyperref[b0]{[2,}\hyperref[b6]{8]}, many countries experiences much longer IABs \hyperref[b8]{[10,}\hyperref[b11]{13]}. In this study the longest IAB is 85m long. Also note that 3 of the 4 subject bridges have same span but differ in total length, the effect of temperature change showed 9.6\% average increase in negative bending moment, at abutment/deck joint, due to 10°C increase in temperature change e.g. in Bridge \#4 (85m long). Figure 10presents the effect of temperature and bridge total length the maximum negative moment at top of abutment walls of the 4 bridges.\par
It is noticed from Figure 10 that for IABs longer than 65m the forces at abutment/deck slab joint start to increase rapidly at temperature change = 50°C (the temperature change normally experiences in Sudan) resulting in non-economical cross sections; this probably explains the advice of given in \hyperref[b0]{[2]}. Therefore, it is recommended at present time to adopt alternativebridge setup e.g. for bridges with total length exceeding 100m semi-integral bridges are more appropriate where bridge deck is placed on sliding bearings over the abutment front wall. However, the literature review and field inspections indicate that the maximum lengths of integral abutment bridges have not been reached \hyperref[b5]{[7,}\hyperref[b8]{10]}. Jointless bridges over 180 meters in total length have been built and have performed satisfactorily in USA \hyperref[b4]{[6]}.  
\section[{Conclusions}]{Conclusions}\par
The following conclusions are drawn from this paper: Changing the soil properties behind the abutment and around the piles does not affect significantly the performance of deck slab in terms of bending moment, shear force and horizontal deflection.\par
The bending moment, shear force, and deflection in deck slab tend to increase linearly with increase in temperature.\par
As expected, the variation in soil type at embankment behind the abutment wall has negligible effect in the deformation and forces at wall to deck joint, see Table \hyperref[tab_4]{4}.\par
The restraint provided by abutment wall backfill is usually considered ineffective in reducing the free thermal expansion of the superstructure this is attributed to the fact that the superstructure to abutment in the direction the bridge is high, and the reactive soil pressure at top of abutment wall is often considered low.\par
The bending moment and deflection in deck slab increases linearly with increase in temperature.\par
The internal forces in the abutments are found to be functions of the thermal-induced displacements of the bridge deck, properties of the pile and stiffness of the foundation soil. Similar to conclusion was reported in \hyperref[b7]{[9,}\hyperref[b13]{14]}.\par
For countries experiencing high temperature changes, like Sudan, and until further verifications are reached, the maximum total length of IAB shall be carefully controlled.it is recommended at present time to adopt alternative bridge setup e.g. semi-integral bridges for bridges with total length exceeding 100m.   
\section[{References Références Referencias}]{References Références Referencias}\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{3}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_0}Figure 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4}\includegraphics[]{image-3.png}
\caption{\label{fig_1}Figure 4 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{6}\includegraphics[]{image-4.png}
\caption{\label{fig_2}Figure 6 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{69}\includegraphics[]{image-5.png}
\caption{\label{fig_3}- 6 Figure 9 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{87}\includegraphics[]{image-6.png}
\caption{\label{fig_4}Figure 8 :Figure 7 :}\end{figure}
    \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{1} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.384180790960452\textwidth}P{0.07683615819209039\textwidth}P{0.1152542372881356\textwidth}P{0.12005649717514125\textwidth}P{0.15367231638418077\textwidth}}
Bridge\tabcellsep No. of spans\tabcellsep Span (m)\tabcellsep Width (m)\tabcellsep Total length (m)\\
Bridge \#1\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 17.0\tabcellsep 12.0\tabcellsep 51.0\\
Bridge \#2\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 16.0\tabcellsep 12.0\tabcellsep 32.0\\
Bridge \#3\tabcellsep 4\tabcellsep 17.0\tabcellsep 12.0\tabcellsep 68.0\\
Bridge \#4\tabcellsep 5\tabcellsep 17.0\tabcellsep 12.0\tabcellsep 85.0\\
\multicolumn{4}{l}{Figure 2 : Elevation at Bridge \#2}\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{2} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.2114213197969543\textwidth}P{0.18121827411167513\textwidth}P{0.2545685279187817\textwidth}P{0.2027918781725888\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Moment of\tabcellsep Modules of\tabcellsep Rigidity\\
Unit\tabcellsep initial, I\tabcellsep elasticity E,\tabcellsep EI,\\
\tabcellsep (m 4 /m)\tabcellsep (kN/m 2 )\tabcellsep (kN/m 2 )\\
Abutment wall\tabcellsep 0.018\tabcellsep 1.40×10 7\tabcellsep 2.52×10 5\\
Pile cap\tabcellsep 0.630\tabcellsep 1.40×10 7\tabcellsep 2.28×10 6\\
Pile (equivalent for 1m)\tabcellsep 0.003\tabcellsep 1.40×10 7\tabcellsep 2.52×10 4\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_1}Table 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.045075757575757575\textwidth}P{0.032196969696969696\textwidth}P{0.27045454545454545\textwidth}P{0.16098484848484848\textwidth}P{0.23181818181818178\textwidth}P{0.10946969696969697\textwidth}}
Soil layer\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Soil type\tabcellsep Unit weight, ? s (kN/m 3 )\tabcellsep Modules of elasticity, E (kN/m 2 )\tabcellsep Angle of friction, ? (°)\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep soil 1: Fine sand\tabcellsep 18.0\tabcellsep 40,000\tabcellsep 25\\
A\tabcellsep Embankment\tabcellsep soil 2: Gravely sand\tabcellsep 19.0\tabcellsep 50,000\tabcellsep 35\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep soil 3: Gravel\tabcellsep 18.0\tabcellsep 100,000\tabcellsep 0\\
B\tabcellsep \tabcellsep sand\tabcellsep 18.0\tabcellsep 50,000\tabcellsep 25\\
C\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Sandy clay\tabcellsep 18.0\tabcellsep 58,000\tabcellsep 29\\
D\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Sand stone\tabcellsep 19.0\tabcellsep 100,000\tabcellsep 0\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_2}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
Year 2015\\
36\\
I\\
e XV Issue III Version\\
( ) Volum E\\
Global Journal of Researches in Engineering\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_4}Table 4 :}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2015 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 			\footnote{Year 2015 E © 2015 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 		 		\backmatter  			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
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